Thursday, May 1, 2008
Encrypted filesystems for Linux
There are a few encrypted filesystems for Linux. Ones aimed at distributed filesystems (NFS replacements): - "CFS", which has been packaged and is available from non-us.debian.org. - "TCFS", http://tcfs.dia.unisa.it/ I used CFS several years ago and it seemed to work well. My only complaint was that triple DES was a bit slow on my 486/33. Another approach which I am currently using involves patching the kernel to provide kernel level encrypted filesystems. I have updated a patch for kernel 2.0.36 which was originally released in 1996 for kernel 2.0.11. I have gotten good results with this using IDEA encryption on systems ranging from a 486/33 to PII-350. There are now encryption patches available for the new 2.2.x kernels. ftp://ftp.kerneli.org/pub/linux/kerneli/v2.2/patch-int-2.2.1.1.gz will add encryption to linux 2.2.1. I have not used this patch yet, but I will give it a try as soon as I update to slink and have a 2.2.x compatible system. When unmounted, the ability to scan the raw partition will not give your cracker any useful information. If they are really determined, they could scan raw /tmp and swap partitions for traces of sensitive data. Whether this is an issue depends on your required security level. When mounted, a root cracker would be able to read the all files on the partition. Mounting the partition requires a passphrase. The kernel approach will require patching and building custom versions of the kernel and mount programs.
Wednesday, April 30, 2008
Protection Of SSH from Hackers
This Is used to add an additional layer to The System Security
# !/bin/sh
#
# swatch This shell script takes care of starting and stopping
# swatch.
#
# chkconfig: 2345 81 31
# description: Swatch is a System WATCHdog program that we are
# using here to block repeated failed ssh logins.
# processname: swatch
RETVAL=0
test -x /usr/bin/swatch || exit 0
start(){
echo "Starting swatch"
# Spawn a new swatch program
/usr/bin/swatch --config-file=/etc/swatchrc --tail-file=/var/log/secure --awk-field-syntax --tail-args "-F" &
echo $PID
return $RETVAL
}
stop () {
# stop daemon
echo "Stopping swatch:" $PROG
killall swatch
return $RETVAL
}
restart () {
stop
start
RETVAL=$?
return $RETVAL
}
case "$1" in
start)
start
;;
stop)
stop
;;
restart)
restart
;;
*)
echo "Usage: $0 {start|stop|restart}"
RETVAL=1
esac
exit $RETVAL
# !/bin/sh
#
# swatch This shell script takes care of starting and stopping
# swatch.
#
# chkconfig: 2345 81 31
# description: Swatch is a System WATCHdog program that we are
# using here to block repeated failed ssh logins.
# processname: swatch
RETVAL=0
test -x /usr/bin/swatch || exit 0
start(){
echo "Starting swatch"
# Spawn a new swatch program
/usr/bin/swatch --config-file=/etc/swatchrc --tail-file=/var/log/secure --awk-field-syntax --tail-args "-F" &
echo $PID
return $RETVAL
}
stop () {
# stop daemon
echo "Stopping swatch:" $PROG
killall swatch
return $RETVAL
}
restart () {
stop
start
RETVAL=$?
return $RETVAL
}
case "$1" in
start)
start
;;
stop)
stop
;;
restart)
restart
;;
*)
echo "Usage: $0 {start|stop|restart}"
RETVAL=1
esac
exit $RETVAL
Sunday, April 27, 2008
ATI & Nvidia: Resume, Good News, Bad News
ATI & Nvidia: Resume, Good News, Bad News
If you're using ATI or Nvidia's binary drivers on a laptop, you've probably noticed that resuming from suspend & hibernate doesn't work so well. The fix is pretty simple, but definitely not intuitive.
Hit alt+f2 (or if you use KDE whatever their runbox thing is...or use a terminal)
Type in gksu gedit /etc/default/acpi-support (replace gksu gedit with kdesu kate if you use KDE)
Scroll to Line 17, which says MODULES="" and put fglrx (if you use ATI) or nvidia (if you use Nvidia) in the quotes
Save and exit
This will make the computer automatically unload your ATI or Nvidia drivers when you hibernate/suspend and reload them when you resume. If for some reason it still doesn't work perfectly (like the 3D is gone when you come back), try turning off Compiz before you suspend or hibernate. I've seen that mess with things too.
In the realm of good news, ATI has agreed to release open source drivers for Linux, just like Intel did years ago. Yay! In the realm of bad news, Nvidia still has not. We want to put pressure on Nvidia to rise to ATI's and Intel's challenge, do we not? Please take a moment to sign the Open Letter to Nvidia asking for fully free and open source 3D-accelerated Nvidia graphics drivers for Linux (8,264 signatures at time of posting) and Digg It. In case you aren't aware, there are 2D open source (barely...the code's fairly well obfuscated) Nvidia drivers on Linux, but that's not good enough for games or for Compiz. Nouveau has been working on creating these 3D open source Nvidia drivers for a while now by reverse engineering and doing lots of hardware probing. For now, they've got better 2D than Nvidia's own open source driver (haha) and some experimental 3D support on the cards the developers have in their own computer and therefore get to mess with the most.
If you're using ATI or Nvidia's binary drivers on a laptop, you've probably noticed that resuming from suspend & hibernate doesn't work so well. The fix is pretty simple, but definitely not intuitive.
Hit alt+f2 (or if you use KDE whatever their runbox thing is...or use a terminal)
Type in gksu gedit /etc/default/acpi-support (replace gksu gedit with kdesu kate if you use KDE)
Scroll to Line 17, which says MODULES="" and put fglrx (if you use ATI) or nvidia (if you use Nvidia) in the quotes
Save and exit
This will make the computer automatically unload your ATI or Nvidia drivers when you hibernate/suspend and reload them when you resume. If for some reason it still doesn't work perfectly (like the 3D is gone when you come back), try turning off Compiz before you suspend or hibernate. I've seen that mess with things too.
In the realm of good news, ATI has agreed to release open source drivers for Linux, just like Intel did years ago. Yay! In the realm of bad news, Nvidia still has not. We want to put pressure on Nvidia to rise to ATI's and Intel's challenge, do we not? Please take a moment to sign the Open Letter to Nvidia asking for fully free and open source 3D-accelerated Nvidia graphics drivers for Linux (8,264 signatures at time of posting) and Digg It. In case you aren't aware, there are 2D open source (barely...the code's fairly well obfuscated) Nvidia drivers on Linux, but that's not good enough for games or for Compiz. Nouveau has been working on creating these 3D open source Nvidia drivers for a while now by reverse engineering and doing lots of hardware probing. For now, they've got better 2D than Nvidia's own open source driver (haha) and some experimental 3D support on the cards the developers have in their own computer and therefore get to mess with the most.
Create/Find Hardware Reviews
Create/Find Hardware Reviews
Another release, another round of hardware that's never touched Linux having its virgin run. Also a lot of people going "but will my hardware work?" Please, please, take 15-30 minutes out of your day and review your hardware somewhere—or in more than one somewhere.Here are some suggestions:
Hardware Testing - At the very least do this one. It's built into Ubuntu. On Gutsy, it's in Applications -> System Tools. In Hardy, System -> Administration -> Hardware Testing. It'll run you through a few tests, asked if it worked, and ask for comments, then it submits the info to the Ubuntu devs using your Launchpad login. I don't think this is something that publicizes the results for easy shopping. The others all do.
Linux on Laptops - If you're a laptop user, take a look. Is your model listed? Is it up to date? If the answer to either question is "no," please submit the information. You can either make a webpage (they have a template) and send them a link or send the info as an attachment.
UbuntuHCL - Sign up and add your parts to their online database. It lets you filter the listing in lots of nice ways to look up info before making a purchase. One thing I like is that the results show a listing of parts with their average rating so you can take a nice list to the store.
Dohickey - Dohickey has a nice graphical client that asks you how well your hardware works, how hard it was to get working, etc. after auto-detecting what it all is. It then submits your results to its database which anyone can browse to find out what parts work well and easily, just like with UbuntuHCL.
Ubuntu Wiki - Lots of pages where you can add info, drilling down into the different categories of hardware. There are listings for prebuilt desktops, laptops, and individual parts.
Another release, another round of hardware that's never touched Linux having its virgin run. Also a lot of people going "but will my hardware work?" Please, please, take 15-30 minutes out of your day and review your hardware somewhere—or in more than one somewhere.Here are some suggestions:
Hardware Testing - At the very least do this one. It's built into Ubuntu. On Gutsy, it's in Applications -> System Tools. In Hardy, System -> Administration -> Hardware Testing. It'll run you through a few tests, asked if it worked, and ask for comments, then it submits the info to the Ubuntu devs using your Launchpad login. I don't think this is something that publicizes the results for easy shopping. The others all do.
Linux on Laptops - If you're a laptop user, take a look. Is your model listed? Is it up to date? If the answer to either question is "no," please submit the information. You can either make a webpage (they have a template) and send them a link or send the info as an attachment.
UbuntuHCL - Sign up and add your parts to their online database. It lets you filter the listing in lots of nice ways to look up info before making a purchase. One thing I like is that the results show a listing of parts with their average rating so you can take a nice list to the store.
Dohickey - Dohickey has a nice graphical client that asks you how well your hardware works, how hard it was to get working, etc. after auto-detecting what it all is. It then submits your results to its database which anyone can browse to find out what parts work well and easily, just like with UbuntuHCL.
Ubuntu Wiki - Lots of pages where you can add info, drilling down into the different categories of hardware. There are listings for prebuilt desktops, laptops, and individual parts.
Frozen Xwindow
Frozen Xwindow.
If your Xwindow freezes sometimes, here are two ways that you may try to kill your server. The first is the simple simple way of killing your X server the key combination: Ctrl+Alt+Backspace
The second way is a little more complicated, but it works most of the time. Hit Ctrl+Alt+F2 to startup a virtual console, then log in with your user name and password and run:
# ps -ax grep startx
This will give you the PID of your Xserver. Then just kill it with:
# kill -9 PID_Number
To go back to your first console, just hit Alt-F1
If your Xwindow freezes sometimes, here are two ways that you may try to kill your server. The first is the simple simple way of killing your X server the key combination: Ctrl+Alt+Backspace
The second way is a little more complicated, but it works most of the time. Hit Ctrl+Alt+F2 to startup a virtual console, then log in with your user name and password and run:
# ps -ax grep startx
This will give you the PID of your Xserver. Then just kill it with:
# kill -9 PID_Number
To go back to your first console, just hit Alt-F1
Customizing your directory colors
Customizing your directory colors.
I know a lot of you know the command ls --color. Which displays your directory with colors. But, a lot of people may not know that those colors are customizable. All you need to do is add the following line to your /etc/bashrc file.
eval `dircolors /etc/DIR_COLORS`
And then all of the color configuration can be found in the file /etc/DIR_COLORS
I know a lot of you know the command ls --color. Which displays your directory with colors. But, a lot of people may not know that those colors are customizable. All you need to do is add the following line to your /etc/bashrc file.
eval `dircolors /etc/DIR_COLORS`
And then all of the color configuration can be found in the file /etc/DIR_COLORS
Linux-My Opinion
I have been using linux for 3 years now and found it quite realiable.I dont know why people hate to use linux.I know its a little bit tough but ultimately we learn to use it.Even I when started to use linux I was not knowing how to use it......but these three years i have been learning sumthing or the other thing virtually everyday.First I used linux for its looks and graphics and still today i am mad after it.they are just awesome.and it does get better and better as u can see with fedora core 8 coming up.Linux is quite a good OS to use and is also a lot stable than other OS.so guys think about it.I will b uploading various new tips and tricks...and yeah u all can help me make my site better....everyone is welcome.for all newbies u can try on ur hands on Linspire or SuSE.I will uplload some free links for these distros shortly.
Saturday, April 26, 2008
Dialup Using Red Hat netcfg
If you are using Redhat's netcfg utility to connect to the internet and you are sick of having to open up the GUI, and click on ACTIVATE to connect, and then have to click on DEACTIVATE to disconnect... here is one little thing that you can do to make life easier.
Let's say you have a ppp0 set up with netcfg. Just add this two lines to your /etc/bashrc
alias dial="/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifup-ppp /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-ppp0"
alias hangup="/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifdown-ppp /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-ppp0"
Now if you want to connect, all you need to do is to go to your terminal and type dial; if you would like to disconnect just
Let's say you have a ppp0 set up with netcfg. Just add this two lines to your /etc/bashrc
alias dial="/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifup-ppp /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-ppp0"
alias hangup="/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifdown-ppp /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-ppp0"
Now if you want to connect, all you need to do is to go to your terminal and type dial; if you would like to disconnect just
Friday, April 18, 2008
Fedora Core 7
Upgrading from previous Fedora
---------------------------------------------------
# rpm -Uhv http://rpm.livna.org/livna-release-7.rpm
Fedora 7 comes with a much improved font package which does NOT get installed when you upgrade for some reason. You'll first want to remove any of the Microsoft fonts first if you had installed them previously then install the new Red Hat provided fonts:
# rpm -ev msttcorefonts
# yum -y install liberation-fonts
# service xfs restart
And finally you're going to need to do an update of the whole system. This will most likely pick up official Fedora updates as well as updated packages from the Livna repository. This might take a while.
# yum -y update
Install MP3 Plug-in
-------------------------------
Since you've been following along this next step is about as easy as it gets. Just use yum to automatically install the MP3 plug-ins for xmms and Rhythmbox like this:
# yum -y install xmms xmms-mp3 xmms-faad2 gstreamer-plugins-ugly \
gstreamer-plugins-bad libmad libid3tag
While you're here you might as well install music player
Banshee:
# yum -y install banshee
The -y flag is to automatically answer yes to any question. If you want to be able to say no you can ignore that flag.
While you're there I highly recommend the grip CD ripper which supports both MP3 and Ogg formats. Once again installation is quite simple:
# yum -y install grip
Other Handy Utilities
----------------------------------
Here are a few other tools that aren't installed by default but a lot of people find handy:
# yum -y install gnomebaker testdisk thunderbird \
screen cups-pdf filelight unrar boost
boost - Advanced graphical Bittorrent
clientcups-pdf - Add-on to CUPS which creates a PDF Printer which you can use to print any document in PDF format. The file is written to your Desktop.
filelight - A wonderful graphical viewer of where your disk space usage is. Very handy for cleaning up your home directory.
gnomebaker - GTK based CD/DVD burning utilityscreen - If you do a lot with the command line you'll find screen
invaluabletestdisk - Two command line utilities to recover lost partitions and undelete files on FAT filesystems. VERY handy for undeleting files on flash memory cards.
thunderbird - Excellent E-mail client that complements Firefox
unrar - Useful utility to extract RAR archives
Install Java J2RE and Mozilla Plug-in
----------------------------------------------------------
It's also very handy to have the Java run-time environment available and most importantly a Mozilla plug-in so you can view dynamic content. It's unfortunate that Mozilla will actually crash if you go to a site containing Java and you don't have the plug-in installed. The libraries in Fedora 7 are newer than the ones used by Sun's build so you'll also need to install a compatability library.
Java Runtime Environment (JRE) 6 Update 2 from Java.com. You'll want to grab the Linux RPM in self-extracting file. Then you want to install it with:
# yum -y install compat-libstdc++-33
# sh ./jre-6u2-linux-i586-rpm.bin
Then you'll probably want to enable Java Plug-ins and here once again there is no easy way:
# ln -s /usr/java/jre1.6.0_02/plugin/i386/ns7/libjavaplugin_oji.so /usr/lib/mozilla/plugins
And finally you'll need to tell Fedora that you wish to use this version of Java as the preferred interpreter rather than the Open Source version that's installed by default. You'll of course need to adjust the full pathname if you install a newer version of the jre than the one in this example: # /usr/sbin/alternatives --install /usr/bin/java java \
/usr/java/jre1.6.0_02/bin/java 1602
# /usr/sbin/alternatives --config java
There are 2 programs which provide 'java'.
Selection Command
-----------------------------------------------
+ 1 /usr/lib/jvm/jre-1.5.0-gcj/bin/java
* 2 /usr/java/jre1.6.0_02/bin/java
Enter to keep the current selection[+], or type selection number: 2
# java -version
java version "1.6.0_02"
Java(TM) SE Runtime Environment (build 1.6.0_02-b05)
Java HotSpot(TM) Client VM (build 1.6.0_02-b05, mixed mode, sharing)
If you know of an easier way please post it to the Comments section below.
After you re-start your browser you can test the Java plug-in installation at http://java.com/en/download/installed.jsp
---------------------------------------------------
# rpm -Uhv http://rpm.livna.org/livna-release-7.rpm
Fedora 7 comes with a much improved font package which does NOT get installed when you upgrade for some reason. You'll first want to remove any of the Microsoft fonts first if you had installed them previously then install the new Red Hat provided fonts:
# rpm -ev msttcorefonts
# yum -y install liberation-fonts
# service xfs restart
And finally you're going to need to do an update of the whole system. This will most likely pick up official Fedora updates as well as updated packages from the Livna repository. This might take a while.
# yum -y update
Install MP3 Plug-in
-------------------------------
Since you've been following along this next step is about as easy as it gets. Just use yum to automatically install the MP3 plug-ins for xmms and Rhythmbox like this:
# yum -y install xmms xmms-mp3 xmms-faad2 gstreamer-plugins-ugly \
gstreamer-plugins-bad libmad libid3tag
While you're here you might as well install music player
Banshee:
# yum -y install banshee
The -y flag is to automatically answer yes to any question. If you want to be able to say no you can ignore that flag.
While you're there I highly recommend the grip CD ripper which supports both MP3 and Ogg formats. Once again installation is quite simple:
# yum -y install grip
Other Handy Utilities
----------------------------------
Here are a few other tools that aren't installed by default but a lot of people find handy:
# yum -y install gnomebaker testdisk thunderbird \
screen cups-pdf filelight unrar boost
boost - Advanced graphical Bittorrent
clientcups-pdf - Add-on to CUPS which creates a PDF Printer which you can use to print any document in PDF format. The file is written to your Desktop.
filelight - A wonderful graphical viewer of where your disk space usage is. Very handy for cleaning up your home directory.
gnomebaker - GTK based CD/DVD burning utilityscreen - If you do a lot with the command line you'll find screen
invaluabletestdisk - Two command line utilities to recover lost partitions and undelete files on FAT filesystems. VERY handy for undeleting files on flash memory cards.
thunderbird - Excellent E-mail client that complements Firefox
unrar - Useful utility to extract RAR archives
Install Java J2RE and Mozilla Plug-in
----------------------------------------------------------
It's also very handy to have the Java run-time environment available and most importantly a Mozilla plug-in so you can view dynamic content. It's unfortunate that Mozilla will actually crash if you go to a site containing Java and you don't have the plug-in installed. The libraries in Fedora 7 are newer than the ones used by Sun's build so you'll also need to install a compatability library.
Java Runtime Environment (JRE) 6 Update 2 from Java.com. You'll want to grab the Linux RPM in self-extracting file. Then you want to install it with:
# yum -y install compat-libstdc++-33
# sh ./jre-6u2-linux-i586-rpm.bin
Then you'll probably want to enable Java Plug-ins and here once again there is no easy way:
# ln -s /usr/java/jre1.6.0_02/plugin/i386/ns7/libjavaplugin_oji.so /usr/lib/mozilla/plugins
And finally you'll need to tell Fedora that you wish to use this version of Java as the preferred interpreter rather than the Open Source version that's installed by default. You'll of course need to adjust the full pathname if you install a newer version of the jre than the one in this example: # /usr/sbin/alternatives --install /usr/bin/java java \
/usr/java/jre1.6.0_02/bin/java 1602
# /usr/sbin/alternatives --config java
There are 2 programs which provide 'java'.
Selection Command
-----------------------------------------------
+ 1 /usr/lib/jvm/jre-1.5.0-gcj/bin/java
* 2 /usr/java/jre1.6.0_02/bin/java
Enter to keep the current selection[+], or type selection number: 2
# java -version
java version "1.6.0_02"
Java(TM) SE Runtime Environment (build 1.6.0_02-b05)
Java HotSpot(TM) Client VM (build 1.6.0_02-b05, mixed mode, sharing)
If you know of an easier way please post it to the Comments section below.
After you re-start your browser you can test the Java plug-in installation at http://java.com/en/download/installed.jsp
Linux Tips & Tricks (Sound)
I use mpg123 (there's a debianized package) with sox. The command line is the following: #!/bin/bash# mp32wav mpg123 -b 10000 -s "$1" sox -t raw -r 44100 -s -w -c2 - "$2" And the use is: mp32wav
file.mp3=> file.wav
MP32Wav: http://www.chip.co.id/freeware/mpw00.html
8hz-mp3, http://www.8hz.com
bladeenc, http://home8.swipnet.se/~w-82625
Bladeenc is supposedly faster.
file.mp3=> file.wav
MP32Wav: http://www.chip.co.id/freeware/mpw00.html
8hz-mp3, http://www.8hz.com
bladeenc, http://home8.swipnet.se/~w-82625
Bladeenc is supposedly faster.
Linux Distros
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Saturday, April 12, 2008
Ubuntu
Ubuntu (IPA: [uːˈbuːntuː] in English,[ùbúntú] in Zulu) is a Linux distribution for desktops, laptops, and servers. It has consistently been rated among the most popular of the many GNU/Linux distributions. Ubuntu's goals include providing an up-to-date yet stable operating system for the average user and having a strong focus on usability and ease of installation. It is a derivative of Debian GNU/Linux. Ubuntu is sponsored by Canonical Ltd, owned by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth. The name of the distribution comes from the southern African concept of ubuntu which may be rendered roughly as "humanity toward others", "we are people because of other people", or "I am who I am because of who we all are", though other meanings have been suggested.This Linux distribution is named Ubuntu as it is expected to bring the spirit of Ubuntu to the software world. Ubuntu is free software and users can share it among each other.
Kubuntu and Xubuntu are official subprojects of the Ubuntu project, aiming to bring the KDE and Xfce desktop environments, respectively, to the Ubuntu core (Ubuntu uses GNOME for its desktop environment). Edubuntu is an official subproject designed for school environments, and should be equally suitable for children to use at home. Gobuntu is an official subproject that is aimed at adhering strictly to the Free Software Foundation's Four Freedoms.The newest official subproject is JeOS. Ubuntu JeOS (pronounced "Juice") is a concept for what an operating system should look like in the context of a virtual appliance.
Ubuntu releases new versions every six months, and supports those releases for 18 months with daily security fixes and patches to critical bugs. The most recent version, Ubuntu 7.10 (Gutsy Gibbon), was released on 18 October 2007. There are also Long Term Support (LTS) releases, which have three years support for the desktop version and five years for the server version. The most recent major LTS version, Ubuntu 6.06 (Dapper Drake), was released on June 1, 2006. The first update, Ubuntu 6.06.1, was released on August 10, 2006, while the second, 6.06.2, was released on January 21, 2008.The next major LTS version will be 8.04 (Hardy Heron), scheduled for release in April 2008. Following this, Ubuntu 8.10 (Intrepid Ibex) is planned for release in October 2008.Mandriva- Formerly Mandrake
Mandriva Linux, formerly Mandrake Linux, announced Tuesday that the ISO images of the free edition of its 2006 operating system are now available for download on public FTP mirror sites. France-based Mandriva began shipping boxed versions of its 2006 operating system on Nov. 3.
Mandriva Linux 2006 Free is a complete and comprehensive Linux distribution consisting entirely of free and open source software. It is freely downloadable and redistributable by anyone.
The newest version of the company's flagship product merges "pioneer technologies" from Conectiva and Lycoris, as well as spanning for the first time a one-year release cycle, the company said.
Mandriva 2006's key new features, as highlighted by the company, are:
- Linux kernel 2.6.12-12mdk
- KDE 3.4
- Kat desktop search tool
- OpenOffice 2.0
- Interactive firewall
- Official support for Intel's Centrino mobile technology
- Full integration of Skype
- Auto-installation server
- Smart package manager
- Integration of Conectiva's and Lycoris's technologies
An interactive firewall lets users get real-time information on malicious actions being performed against their system, according to the company. Unlike a typical firewall, which is based on fixed rules, the interactive version allows to constantly adapt the rules depending on the actual status of the computer, Madriva said.
Some key applications included in all versions of Mandriva 2006 are:
- OpenOffice.org office suite
- Mozilla Firefox 1.0.7
- Kopete IM client
- Kontact contact management
- The GIMP, for image creation and manipulation
- Amarok, for digital music collection and management
Mandriva 2006 is available in three editions:
- Discovery/Lx, for the Linux beginner
- PowerPack, for the advanced computer user
- PowerPack+, for SOHO users
download link:http://frontal2.mandriva.com/en/downloads
Linspire-World's Easiest Linux
It begins, where the others end...Starting with the best that open source has to offer Linspire adds CNR, proprietary software, drivers, and codecs to provide the world's easiest Linux-based operating system designed for laptop & desktop PCs
Powered by UbuntuLinspire is a Debian-based Linux operating system, which uses the popular Ubuntu Linux OS for its baseline. Linspire starts with Ubuntu, then adds many additional features and software applications including proprietary software, codecs and drivers to provide provide you the world's easiest Linux-based operating system designed for laptop & desktop PCs.
CNR availableCNR.com provides access to over 20,000 free & commercial software programs, packages and libraries. Linspire 6.0 comes pre-installed with the CNR Client (Currently in beta stage - auto-updates are available for upcoming Client versions).
Multimedia SupportLinspire comes pre-loaded and ready to support MP3, Real, Quicktime, Windows Media, Java, Flash, and more. No more hunting around, buying, licensing and then installing all the different multimedia support software. Everything is already licensed and ready to run. Optional DVD playback support is just a click away at CNR.com.
Plug-N-Play Hardware SupportLinspire provides the most extensive hardware support available including drivers from ATI, nVidia, Intel, and others. Connect digital cameras, scanners, MP3 players and more. Linspire instantly recognizes USB and Firewire devices. Thousands of peripherals are supported without requiring the messy installation of drivers or other software. Just plug in the device and go.
Wireless NetworkingLinspire supports the latest 802.11b and 802.11g wireless networking and an updated Network Control panel lets you customize profiles so you can effortlessly shift between home, work and other networks without bothering with any configuration screens.
Office Productivity SuiteLinspire's comes pre-installed with a complete office productivity software suite (Open Office 2.2) which includes Microsoft file-compatible word processing, spreadsheet and presentation software, as well as new Open XML translators which enables bi-directional compatibility so that files saved in Open XML can be opened by OpenOffice, providing more interopability so you can easily read and share documents.
Internet SuiteOnce connected to the web, the Linspire Internet Suite provides all you need to make the most of your online experience: An easy-to-use tabbed web browser with pop-up ad blocking, multi-account email program with SPAM filtering, an address book, calendar! And Linspire is compatible with Windows media, Flash, and Java and more!
Instant MessagingStay in touch with all your friends using Pidgin. Instant Messaging from Pidgin supports AOL, AIM, Yahoo!, MSN, and other messaging networks, and includes plenty of advanced features such as tabs, chat rooms and buddy notification.
Lphoto - Digital PhotosLinspire includes Lphoto, the best all-in-one photo manager available. Import, organize, edit, crop, enhance, and share photos from over 300 hundred plug-n-play supported digital cameras. Even use your photos as a screensaver and make video CDs!
Lsongs - Digital MusicLsongs is an all-in-one music manager built-in to Linspire and ready to help you rip your favorite music, organize it, play it, sync it to portable players, and burn it to your own music mix CDs. Lsongs provides everything you need to easily manage and enjoy your music collection.
Free Internet CallingThe popular Gizmo Project VoIP software lets you talk to your friends all over the world for free with no long-distance phone charges. Call computer-to-computer, set up conference calls, and check voicemail - all at no charge. Or you can "Call Out" to land-line telephones for as little as a penny per minute, and automatic account creation makes Gizmo Project a snap to set up.
Microsoft IP ProtectionWe provide you the confidence of knowing that Linspire actively secures proper intellectual property licenses and assurances for 3rd party technology that are part of our products. These efforts include licensing agreements between Linspire and dozens of commercial software vendors, including our arrangement with Microsoft to provide Linspire customers with Microsoft patent covenants.
Friday, April 11, 2008
Linux ?
Linux (commonly pronounced IPA in English; variants exist) is a Unix-like computer operating system. Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free software and open source development: typically all underlying source code can be freely modified, used, and redistributed by anyone.
The name "Linux" comes from the Linux kernel, started in 1991 by Linus Torvalds. The system's utilities and libraries usually come from the GNU operating system, announced in 1983 by Richard Stallman. The GNU contribution is the basis for the alternative name GNU/Linux.
Predominantly known for its use in servers, Linux is supported by corporations such as Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Novell, Oracle Corporation, Red Hat, and Sun Microsystems. It is used as an operating system for a wide variety of computer hardware, including desktop computers, supercomputers,video game systems, such as the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3, several arcade games, and embedded devices such as mobile phones, routers, and stage lighting systems.
The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in the 1960s and first released in 1970. Its wide availability and portability meant that it was widely adopted, copied and modified by academic institutions and businesses, with its design being influential on authors of other systems.
Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU project
The GNU Project, started in 1984, had the goal of creating a "complete Unix-compatible software system"made entirely of free software. In 1985, Richard Stallman created the Free Software Foundation and developed the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL). Many of the programs required in an OS (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell, and a windowing system) were completed by the early 1990s, although low level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete.[6] Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own
MINIX
MINIX, a Unix-like system intended for academic use, was released by Andrew S. Tanenbaum in 1987. While source code for the system was available, modification and redistribution were restricted (though that is not the case today). In addition, MINIX's 16-bit design was not well adapted to the 32-bit design of the increasingly cheap and popular Intel 386 architecture for personal computers.
Linus Torvalds, creator of the Linux kernel.
In 1991, Torvalds began to work on a non-commercial replacement for MINIX while he was attending the University of Helsinki.[8] This eventually became the Linux kernel.
In 1992, Tanenbaum posted an article on Usenet claiming Linux was obsolete. In the article, he criticized the operating system as being monolithic in design and being tied closely to the x86 architecture and thus not portable, as he described "a fundamental error."[9] Tanenbaum suggested that those who wanted a modern operating system should look into one based on the microkernel model. The posting elicited the response of Torvalds and Ken Thompson, one of the founders of Unix, which resulted in a well known debate over the microkernel and monolithic kernel designs.
Linux was dependent on the MINIX user space at first. With code from the GNU system freely available, it was advantageous if this could be used with the fledgling OS. Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be used in other projects, so long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. In order to make the Linux kernel compatible with the components from the GNU Project, Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license (which prohibited commercial redistribution) to the GNU GPL.Linux and GNU developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.
Commercial and popular uptake
Today Linux is used in numerous domains, from embedded systems[11] to supercomputers,[12] and has secured a place in server installations with the popular LAMP application stack.[13] Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components. Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.
Pronunciation
In 1992, Torvalds explained how he pronounces the word Linux:
'li' is pronounced with a short [ee] sound: compare prInt, mInImal etc. 'nux' is also short, non-diphthong, like in pUt. It's partly due to minix: linux was just my working name for the thing, and as I wrote it to replace minix on my system, the result is what it is... linus' minix became linux.
—Linus Torvalds, comp.os.linux newsgroup
Torvalds has made available an audio sample which indicates his own pronunciation, in English and Swedish.However, an interview from the 2001 documentary Revolution OS indicates that his preferred pronunciation has slightly changed.[17]
Many English speakers tend to pronounce the name as [ˈlɪnʊks] or [ˈlɪnəks].
Design
Linux is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Linux uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, and peripheral and file system access. Device drivers are integrated directly with the kernel.
Much of Linux's higher-level functionality is provided by separate projects which interface with the kernel. The GNU userland is an important part of most Linux systems, providing the shell and Unix tools which carry out many basic operating system tasks. On top these tools form a Linux system with a graphical user interface that can be used, usually running in the X Window System.
User interface
Linux can be controlled by one or more of a text-based command line interface (CLI), graphical user interface (GUI) (usually the default for desktop), or through controls on the device itself (common on embedded machines).
On desktop machines, KDE, GNOME and Xfce are the most popular user interfaces,[18] though a variety of other user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces run on top of the X Window System (X), which provides network transparency, enabling a graphical application running on one machine to be displayed and controlled from another.
Other GUIs include X window managers such as FVWM, Enlightenment and Window Maker. The window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X window system.
A Linux system usually provides a CLI of some sort through a shell, which is the traditional way of interacting with a Unix system. A Linux distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface. A “headless system” run without even a monitor can be controlled by the command line via a protocol such as SSH or telnet.
Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU Userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple inter-process communication. A graphical terminal emulator program is often used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop.
Development
A summarised history of Unix-like operating systems showing Linux's origins. Note that despite similar architectural designs and concepts being shared as part of the POSIX standard, Linux does not share any non-free source code with the original Unix nor Minix.
The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is the best-known and most widely used. Some free and open source software licences are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the GNU GPL, is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU project.
Linux systems adhere to POSIX, SUS,ISO and ANSI standards where possible. To date, however, only the Linux-FT distribution has been POSIX.1 certified.
Free software projects, although developed in a collaborative fashion, are often produced independently of each other. However, given that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, this provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.
A Linux distribution, commonly called a “distro”, is a project that manages a remote collection of Linux-based software, and facilitates installation of a Linux operating system. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. They include system software and application software in the form of packages, and distribution-specific software for initial system installation and configuration as well as later package upgrades and installs. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of installed Linux systems, system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole.
Community
Linux is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora.
In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux Users Groups (LUGs) seek to promote Linux and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. There are also many Internet communities that seek to provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and open source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.org and the Gentoo forums. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.
There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Linux Weekly News is a weekly digest of Linux-related news; the Linux Journal is an online magazine of Linux articles published monthly; Slashdot is a technology-related news website with many stories on Linux and open source software; Groklaw has written in depth about Linux-related legal proceedings and there are many articles relevant to the Linux kernel and its relationship with GNU on the GNU project's website. Print magazines on Linux often include cover disks including software or even complete Linux distributions.
Although Linux is generally available free of charge, several large corporations have established business models that involve selling, supporting, and contributing to Linux and free software. These include Dell, IBM, HP, Sun Microsystems, Novell, and Red Hat. The free software licenses on which Linux is based explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between Linux as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks. Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware.
Programming on Linux
Most Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Java, and Fortran. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler.
Most distributions also include support for Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. Examples of languages that are less common, but still well-supported, are C# via the Mono project, and Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like Kaffe. The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications are those of GNOME and KDE. These projects are based on the GTK+ and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development environments available including Anjuta, Code::Blocks, Eclipse, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, and Omnis Studio while the long-established editors Vim and Emacs remain popular.[24]
Uses
As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.
Linux is a widely ported operating system. While the Linux kernel was originally designed only for Intel 80386 microprocessors, it now runs on a more diverse range of computer architectures than any other operating system: in the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ and the mainframe IBM System z9, in devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers.[26] Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers, PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.
Although there is a lack of Linux ports for some Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows programs in domains such as desktop publishing[27] and professional audio,[28][29][30] applications equivalent to those available for Mac and Windows are available for Linux.[31]
Most Linux distributions provide a program for browsing a list of thousands of free software applications that have already been tested and configured for a specific distribution. These free programs can be downloaded and installed with one mouse click and a digital signature guarantees that no one has added a virus or a spyware to these programs.
Many free software titles that are popular on Windows, such as Pidgin, Mozilla Firefox, Openoffice.org, and GIMP, are available for Linux. A growing amount of proprietary desktop software is also supported under Linux,[32] examples being Adobe Flash Player, Acrobat Reader, Matlab, Nero Burning ROM, Opera, Google Picasa, RealPlayer, and Skype. In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as AutoDesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake, is available for Linux, Windows and/or Mac OS X. CrossOver is a proprietary solution based on the open source Wine project that supports running older Windows versions of Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2. Microsoft Office 2007 and Adobe Photoshop CS3 are known not to work.[33][34]
Besides the free Windows compatibility layer Wine, most distributions offer Dual boot and X86 virtualization for running both Linux and Windows on the same computer.
Linux's open nature allows distributed teams to localize Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example the Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix distribution was available for a long time before Microsoft Windows XP was translated to Sinhalese. In this case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, linguists, and local developers.
The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic, with at least one key Linux kernel developer, Con Kolivas, accusing the Linux community of favouring performance on servers. He quit Linux development because he was frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a 'tell all' interview on the topic.[35]
See also: Linux gaming
Servers and supercomputers
Historically, Linux has mainly been used as a server operating system, and has risen to prominence in that area; Netcraft reported in February 2008 that five of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies run Linux on their web servers.[36] This is due to its relative stability and long uptime, and the fact that desktop software with a graphical user interface for servers is often unneeded. Enterprise and non-enterprise Linux distributions may be found running on servers. Linux is the cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.
Linux is commonly used as an operating system for supercomputers. As of November 2007, out of the top 500 systems, 426 (85.2%) run Linux.[37]
Embedded devices
Due to its low cost and ability to be easily modified, an embedded Linux is often used in embedded systems. Linux has become a major competitor to the proprietary Symbian OS found in the majority of smartphones — 16.7% of smartphones sold worldwide during 2006 were using Linux[38] — and it is an alternative to the proprietary Windows CE and Palm OS operating systems on mobile devices. Cell phones or PDAs running on Linux and built on open source platform became a trend from 2007, like Nokia N810, Openmoko's Neo1973 and the on-going Google Android. The popular TiVo digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux.[39] Several network firewall and router standalone products, including several from Linksys, use Linux internally, using its advanced firewall and routing capabilities. The Korg OASYS and the Yamaha Motif XS music workstations also run Linux.[40] Further more Linux is used in the leading stage lighting control system, FlyingPig/HighEnd WholeHogIII Console.[41]
Market share and uptake
Main article: Linux adoption
Many quantitative studies of open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.[42] The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux is expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.[43]
IDC's report for Q1 2007 says that Linux now holds 12.7% of the overall server market.[44] This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies.
Desktop adoption of Linux is approximately 1%. In comparison, Microsoft operating systems hold more than 90%.[45][46][47][48][49][50][51]
The frictional cost of switching operating systems and lack of support for certain hardware and application programs designed for Microsoft Windows have been two factors that have inhibited adoption. Proponents and analysts attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability,[52] low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.[53]
Also most recently Google has begun to fund Wine, which acts as a compatibility layer, allowing users to run some Windows programs under Linux.
The XO laptop project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community, planned to reach several hundred million schoolchildren and their families and communities in developing countries. Six countries have ordered a million or more units each for delivery in 2007 to distribute to schoolchildren at no charge. Google, Red Hat, and eBay are among the major supporters of the project.[54]
See also: Usage share of desktop operating systems
Code size
A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code. Using the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop in the United States.[55]
Most of the code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.[55]
In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 4.0.[56] This distribution contained over 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 5.4 billion Euros to develop by conventional means.
Licensing, trademark, and naming
The Linux kernel and most GNU software are licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The GPL requires that anyone who distributes the Linux kernel must make the source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms. In 1997, Linus Torvalds stated, “Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did.”[57] Other key components of a Linux system may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X Window System uses the MIT License.
Torvalds has publicly stated that he would not move the Linux kernel (currently licensed under GPL version 2) to version 3 of the GPL, released in mid-2007, specifically citing some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in digital rights management.[58][59]
In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[60] Initially, nobody registered it, but on August 15, 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.[61] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he only trademarked the name to prevent someone else from using it, but was bound in 2005 by United States trademark law to take active measures to enforce the trademark. As a result, the LMI sent out a number of letters to distribution vendors requesting that a fee be paid for the use of the name, and a number of companies have complied
GNU/Linux
The Free Software Foundation views Linux distributions which use GNU software as GNU variants and they ask that such operating systems be referred to as GNU/Linux or a Linux-based GNU system.However, the media and population at large refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux. While some distributors make a point of using the aggregate form, most notably Debian with the Debian GNU/Linux distribution, the term's use outside of the enthusiast community is limited. The distinction between the Linux kernel and distributions based on it plus the GNU system is a source of confusion to many newcomers, and the naming remains controversial
The name "Linux" comes from the Linux kernel, started in 1991 by Linus Torvalds. The system's utilities and libraries usually come from the GNU operating system, announced in 1983 by Richard Stallman. The GNU contribution is the basis for the alternative name GNU/Linux.
Predominantly known for its use in servers, Linux is supported by corporations such as Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Novell, Oracle Corporation, Red Hat, and Sun Microsystems. It is used as an operating system for a wide variety of computer hardware, including desktop computers, supercomputers,video game systems, such as the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3, several arcade games, and embedded devices such as mobile phones, routers, and stage lighting systems.
The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in the 1960s and first released in 1970. Its wide availability and portability meant that it was widely adopted, copied and modified by academic institutions and businesses, with its design being influential on authors of other systems.
Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU project
The GNU Project, started in 1984, had the goal of creating a "complete Unix-compatible software system"made entirely of free software. In 1985, Richard Stallman created the Free Software Foundation and developed the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL). Many of the programs required in an OS (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell, and a windowing system) were completed by the early 1990s, although low level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete.[6] Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own
MINIX
MINIX, a Unix-like system intended for academic use, was released by Andrew S. Tanenbaum in 1987. While source code for the system was available, modification and redistribution were restricted (though that is not the case today). In addition, MINIX's 16-bit design was not well adapted to the 32-bit design of the increasingly cheap and popular Intel 386 architecture for personal computers.
Linus Torvalds, creator of the Linux kernel.
In 1991, Torvalds began to work on a non-commercial replacement for MINIX while he was attending the University of Helsinki.[8] This eventually became the Linux kernel.
In 1992, Tanenbaum posted an article on Usenet claiming Linux was obsolete. In the article, he criticized the operating system as being monolithic in design and being tied closely to the x86 architecture and thus not portable, as he described "a fundamental error."[9] Tanenbaum suggested that those who wanted a modern operating system should look into one based on the microkernel model. The posting elicited the response of Torvalds and Ken Thompson, one of the founders of Unix, which resulted in a well known debate over the microkernel and monolithic kernel designs.
Linux was dependent on the MINIX user space at first. With code from the GNU system freely available, it was advantageous if this could be used with the fledgling OS. Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be used in other projects, so long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. In order to make the Linux kernel compatible with the components from the GNU Project, Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license (which prohibited commercial redistribution) to the GNU GPL.Linux and GNU developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.
Commercial and popular uptake
Today Linux is used in numerous domains, from embedded systems[11] to supercomputers,[12] and has secured a place in server installations with the popular LAMP application stack.[13] Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components. Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.
Pronunciation
In 1992, Torvalds explained how he pronounces the word Linux:
'li' is pronounced with a short [ee] sound: compare prInt, mInImal etc. 'nux' is also short, non-diphthong, like in pUt. It's partly due to minix: linux was just my working name for the thing, and as I wrote it to replace minix on my system, the result is what it is... linus' minix became linux.
—Linus Torvalds, comp.os.linux newsgroup
Torvalds has made available an audio sample which indicates his own pronunciation, in English and Swedish.However, an interview from the 2001 documentary Revolution OS indicates that his preferred pronunciation has slightly changed.[17]
Many English speakers tend to pronounce the name as [ˈlɪnʊks] or [ˈlɪnəks].
Design
Linux is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Linux uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, and peripheral and file system access. Device drivers are integrated directly with the kernel.
Much of Linux's higher-level functionality is provided by separate projects which interface with the kernel. The GNU userland is an important part of most Linux systems, providing the shell and Unix tools which carry out many basic operating system tasks. On top these tools form a Linux system with a graphical user interface that can be used, usually running in the X Window System.
User interface
Linux can be controlled by one or more of a text-based command line interface (CLI), graphical user interface (GUI) (usually the default for desktop), or through controls on the device itself (common on embedded machines).
On desktop machines, KDE, GNOME and Xfce are the most popular user interfaces,[18] though a variety of other user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces run on top of the X Window System (X), which provides network transparency, enabling a graphical application running on one machine to be displayed and controlled from another.
Other GUIs include X window managers such as FVWM, Enlightenment and Window Maker. The window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X window system.
A Linux system usually provides a CLI of some sort through a shell, which is the traditional way of interacting with a Unix system. A Linux distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface. A “headless system” run without even a monitor can be controlled by the command line via a protocol such as SSH or telnet.
Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU Userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple inter-process communication. A graphical terminal emulator program is often used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop.
Development
A summarised history of Unix-like operating systems showing Linux's origins. Note that despite similar architectural designs and concepts being shared as part of the POSIX standard, Linux does not share any non-free source code with the original Unix nor Minix.
The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is the best-known and most widely used. Some free and open source software licences are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the GNU GPL, is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU project.
Linux systems adhere to POSIX, SUS,ISO and ANSI standards where possible. To date, however, only the Linux-FT distribution has been POSIX.1 certified.
Free software projects, although developed in a collaborative fashion, are often produced independently of each other. However, given that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, this provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.
A Linux distribution, commonly called a “distro”, is a project that manages a remote collection of Linux-based software, and facilitates installation of a Linux operating system. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. They include system software and application software in the form of packages, and distribution-specific software for initial system installation and configuration as well as later package upgrades and installs. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of installed Linux systems, system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole.
Community
Linux is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora.
In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux Users Groups (LUGs) seek to promote Linux and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. There are also many Internet communities that seek to provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and open source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.org and the Gentoo forums. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.
There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Linux Weekly News is a weekly digest of Linux-related news; the Linux Journal is an online magazine of Linux articles published monthly; Slashdot is a technology-related news website with many stories on Linux and open source software; Groklaw has written in depth about Linux-related legal proceedings and there are many articles relevant to the Linux kernel and its relationship with GNU on the GNU project's website. Print magazines on Linux often include cover disks including software or even complete Linux distributions.
Although Linux is generally available free of charge, several large corporations have established business models that involve selling, supporting, and contributing to Linux and free software. These include Dell, IBM, HP, Sun Microsystems, Novell, and Red Hat. The free software licenses on which Linux is based explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between Linux as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks. Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware.
Programming on Linux
Most Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Java, and Fortran. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler.
Most distributions also include support for Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. Examples of languages that are less common, but still well-supported, are C# via the Mono project, and Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like Kaffe. The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications are those of GNOME and KDE. These projects are based on the GTK+ and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development environments available including Anjuta, Code::Blocks, Eclipse, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, and Omnis Studio while the long-established editors Vim and Emacs remain popular.[24]
Uses
As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.
Linux is a widely ported operating system. While the Linux kernel was originally designed only for Intel 80386 microprocessors, it now runs on a more diverse range of computer architectures than any other operating system: in the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ and the mainframe IBM System z9, in devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers.[26] Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers, PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.
Although there is a lack of Linux ports for some Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows programs in domains such as desktop publishing[27] and professional audio,[28][29][30] applications equivalent to those available for Mac and Windows are available for Linux.[31]
Most Linux distributions provide a program for browsing a list of thousands of free software applications that have already been tested and configured for a specific distribution. These free programs can be downloaded and installed with one mouse click and a digital signature guarantees that no one has added a virus or a spyware to these programs.
Many free software titles that are popular on Windows, such as Pidgin, Mozilla Firefox, Openoffice.org, and GIMP, are available for Linux. A growing amount of proprietary desktop software is also supported under Linux,[32] examples being Adobe Flash Player, Acrobat Reader, Matlab, Nero Burning ROM, Opera, Google Picasa, RealPlayer, and Skype. In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as AutoDesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake, is available for Linux, Windows and/or Mac OS X. CrossOver is a proprietary solution based on the open source Wine project that supports running older Windows versions of Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2. Microsoft Office 2007 and Adobe Photoshop CS3 are known not to work.[33][34]
Besides the free Windows compatibility layer Wine, most distributions offer Dual boot and X86 virtualization for running both Linux and Windows on the same computer.
Linux's open nature allows distributed teams to localize Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example the Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix distribution was available for a long time before Microsoft Windows XP was translated to Sinhalese. In this case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, linguists, and local developers.
The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic, with at least one key Linux kernel developer, Con Kolivas, accusing the Linux community of favouring performance on servers. He quit Linux development because he was frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a 'tell all' interview on the topic.[35]
See also: Linux gaming
Servers and supercomputers
Historically, Linux has mainly been used as a server operating system, and has risen to prominence in that area; Netcraft reported in February 2008 that five of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies run Linux on their web servers.[36] This is due to its relative stability and long uptime, and the fact that desktop software with a graphical user interface for servers is often unneeded. Enterprise and non-enterprise Linux distributions may be found running on servers. Linux is the cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.
Linux is commonly used as an operating system for supercomputers. As of November 2007, out of the top 500 systems, 426 (85.2%) run Linux.[37]
Embedded devices
Due to its low cost and ability to be easily modified, an embedded Linux is often used in embedded systems. Linux has become a major competitor to the proprietary Symbian OS found in the majority of smartphones — 16.7% of smartphones sold worldwide during 2006 were using Linux[38] — and it is an alternative to the proprietary Windows CE and Palm OS operating systems on mobile devices. Cell phones or PDAs running on Linux and built on open source platform became a trend from 2007, like Nokia N810, Openmoko's Neo1973 and the on-going Google Android. The popular TiVo digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux.[39] Several network firewall and router standalone products, including several from Linksys, use Linux internally, using its advanced firewall and routing capabilities. The Korg OASYS and the Yamaha Motif XS music workstations also run Linux.[40] Further more Linux is used in the leading stage lighting control system, FlyingPig/HighEnd WholeHogIII Console.[41]
Market share and uptake
Main article: Linux adoption
Many quantitative studies of open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.[42] The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux is expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.[43]
IDC's report for Q1 2007 says that Linux now holds 12.7% of the overall server market.[44] This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies.
Desktop adoption of Linux is approximately 1%. In comparison, Microsoft operating systems hold more than 90%.[45][46][47][48][49][50][51]
The frictional cost of switching operating systems and lack of support for certain hardware and application programs designed for Microsoft Windows have been two factors that have inhibited adoption. Proponents and analysts attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability,[52] low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.[53]
Also most recently Google has begun to fund Wine, which acts as a compatibility layer, allowing users to run some Windows programs under Linux.
The XO laptop project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community, planned to reach several hundred million schoolchildren and their families and communities in developing countries. Six countries have ordered a million or more units each for delivery in 2007 to distribute to schoolchildren at no charge. Google, Red Hat, and eBay are among the major supporters of the project.[54]
See also: Usage share of desktop operating systems
Code size
A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code. Using the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop in the United States.[55]
Most of the code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.[55]
In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 4.0.[56] This distribution contained over 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 5.4 billion Euros to develop by conventional means.
Licensing, trademark, and naming
The Linux kernel and most GNU software are licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The GPL requires that anyone who distributes the Linux kernel must make the source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms. In 1997, Linus Torvalds stated, “Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did.”[57] Other key components of a Linux system may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X Window System uses the MIT License.
Torvalds has publicly stated that he would not move the Linux kernel (currently licensed under GPL version 2) to version 3 of the GPL, released in mid-2007, specifically citing some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in digital rights management.[58][59]
In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[60] Initially, nobody registered it, but on August 15, 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.[61] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he only trademarked the name to prevent someone else from using it, but was bound in 2005 by United States trademark law to take active measures to enforce the trademark. As a result, the LMI sent out a number of letters to distribution vendors requesting that a fee be paid for the use of the name, and a number of companies have complied
GNU/Linux
The Free Software Foundation views Linux distributions which use GNU software as GNU variants and they ask that such operating systems be referred to as GNU/Linux or a Linux-based GNU system.However, the media and population at large refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux. While some distributors make a point of using the aggregate form, most notably Debian with the Debian GNU/Linux distribution, the term's use outside of the enthusiast community is limited. The distinction between the Linux kernel and distributions based on it plus the GNU system is a source of confusion to many newcomers, and the naming remains controversial
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